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发信人: myosotis (阿金), 信区: AdvancedEdu
标 题: 98-99 ocupational outlook/College and University
发信站: BBS 水木清华站 (Mon Apr 6 21:58:54 1998)
(D.O.T. 090.227-010)
Significant Points
* A Ph.D. is generally required for full-time positions in
4-year colleges and universities; in 2-year institutions,
master's degree holders may qualify.
* Applicants for full-time college faculty positions face
keen competition because many colleges and universities, in
an effort to cut costs, will hire more part-time faculty.
* Job prospects will continue to be better in certain
fieldscomputer science, engineering, and business, for
examplethat offer attractive nonacademic job opportunities
and attract fewer applicants for academic positions.
* Nature of the Work
College and university faculty teach and advise nearly 15
million full- and part-time college students and perform a
significant part of our Nation's research. They also study
and meet with colleagues to keep up with developments in
their field and consult with government, business,
nonprofit, and community organizations.
Faculty generally are organized into departments or
divisions, based on subject or field. They usually teach
several different courses in their departmentalgebra,
calculus, and statistics, for example. They may instruct
undergraduate or graduate students, or both. College and
university faculty may give lectures to several hundred
students in large halls, lead small seminars, or supervise
students in laboratories. They prepare lectures, exercises,
and laboratory experiments, grade exams and papers, and
advise and work with students individually. In universities,
they also counsel, advise, teach, and supervise graduate
student teaching and research. College faculty work with an
increasingly varied student population made up of growing
shares of part-time, older, and culturally and racially
diverse students.
Faculty keep abreast of developments in their field by
reading current literature, talking with colleagues, and
participating in professional conferences. They also do
their own research to expand knowledge in their field. They
experiment, collect and analyze data, and examine original
documents, literature, and other source material. From this,
they develop hypotheses, arrive at conclusions, and publish
their findings in scholarly journals, books, and electronic
media.
College and university faculty increasingly use technology
in all areas of their work. In the classroom, they may use
computersincluding the Internet; electronic mail; software
programs, such as statistical packages; and CD-ROMsas
teaching aids. Some professors teach "satellite" courses
that are broadcast to students at off-campus sites through
closed-circuit or cable television. Faculty also use
computers to do their own research, participate in
discussion groups in their field, or publicize their
professional research papers.
Most faculty members serve on academic or administrative
committees which deal with the policies of their
institution, departmental matters, academic issues,
curricula, budgets, equipment purchases, and hiring. Some
work with student as well as community organizations.
Department chairpersons are faculty members who usually
teach some courses but generally have heavier administrative
responsibilities.
The proportion of time spent on research, teaching,
administrative, and other duties varies by individual
circumstance and type of institution. Faculty members at
universities generally spend a significant part of their
time doing research; those in 4-year colleges, somewhat
less; and those in 2-year colleges, relatively little.
However, the teaching load usually is heavier in 2-year
colleges and somewhat lower at 4-year institutions. Full
professors at all types of institutions usually spend a
larger portion of their time conducting research than
assistant professors, instructors, and lecturers.
* Working Conditions
College faculty generally have flexible schedules. They must
be present for classes, usually 12 to 16 hours a week, and
for faculty and committee meetings. Most establish regular
office hours for student consultations, usually 3 to 6 hours
per week. Otherwise, faculty are free to decide when and
where they will work, and how much time to devote to course
preparation, grading papers and exams, study, research,
graduate student supervision, and other activities. Initial
adjustment to these responsibilities can be challenging as
new faculty adapt to switching roles from student to
teacher. This adjustment may be even more difficult as class
size grows in response to faculty and budget cutbacks,
increasing an instructor's workload. Also, many institutions
are increasing their reliance on part-time faculty, who
generally have limited administrative and student advising
duties, which leaves the declining number of full-time
faculty with a heavier workload.
Some faculty members work staggered hours and teach classes
at night and on weekends. This is particularly true for
faculty who teach at 2-year community colleges or
institutions with large enrollments of older students with
full-time jobs or family responsibilities on weekdays. Most
faculty are employed on a 9-month contract, which allows
them the time to teach, do research, travel, or pursue
nonacademic interests during the summer and school holidays.
Most colleges and universities have funds to support faculty
research or other professional development needs, including
travel to conferences and research sites.
Faculty may experience a conflict between their
responsibilities to teach students and the pressure to do
research and publish their findings. This may be a
particular problem for young faculty seeking advancement in
4-year research universities. Increasing emphasis on
undergraduate teaching performance in tenure decisions may
alleviate some of this pressure, however.
Part-time faculty generally spend little time on campus,
because they usually don't have an office. In addition, they
may teach at more than one college, requiring travel between
their various places of employment, earning the name "gypsy
faculty." Part-time faculty are usually not eligible for
tenure. Dealing with this lack of job security can be
stressful.
* Employment
College and university faculty held about 864,000 jobs in
1996, mostly in public institutions.
About 4 out of 10 college and university faculty worked part
time in 1996. Some part-timers, known as "adjunct faculty,"
have primary jobs outside of academiain government, private
industry, or in nonprofit researchand teach "on the side."
Others seek full-time jobs but are unable to obtain them due
to intense competition for available openings. Some work
part time in more than one institution.
* Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Most college and university faculty are in four academic
ranks: Professor, associate professor, assistant professor,
and instructor. These positions are usually considered to be
tenure-track positions. A small number of faculty, called
lecturers, usually are not on the tenure track.
Most faculty members are hired as instructors or assistant
professors. Four-year colleges and universities generally
only consider doctoral degree holders for full-time,
tenure-track positions, but may hire master's degree holders
or doctoral candidates for certain disciplines, such as the
arts, or for part-time and temporary jobs. In 2-year
colleges, master's degree holders often qualify for
full-time positions. However, with increasing competition
for available jobs, institutions can be more selective in
their hiring practices. Master's degree holders may find it
increasingly difficult to obtain employment as they are
passed over in favor of candidates holding a Ph.D.
Doctoral programs, including time spent completing a
master's degree and a dissertation, take an average of 6 to
8 years of full-time study beyond the bachelor's degree.
Some programs, such as the humanities, take longer to
complete; others, such as engineering, generally are
shorter. Candidates usually specialize in a subfield of a
disciplinefor example, organic chemistry, counseling
psychology, or European historybut also take courses
covering the entire discipline. Programs include 20 or more
increasingly specialized courses and seminars plus
comprehensive examinations on all major areas of the field.
Candidates also must complete a dissertationa written
report on original research in the candidate's major field
of study. The dissertation sets forth an original hypothesis
or proposes a model and tests it. Students in the natural
sciences and engineering usually do laboratory work; in the
to changes in the budget and the size of the student body.
These contracts may be terminated or extended at the end of
the period. Institutions are not obligated to grant tenure
to these contract holders.
Some facultybased on teaching experience, research,
publication, and service on campus committees and task
forcesmove into administrative and managerial positions,
such as departmental chairperson, dean, and president. At
4-year institutions, such advancement requires a doctoral
degree. At 2-year colleges, a doctorate is helpful but not
generally required, except for advancement to some top
administrative positions. (Deans and departmental
chairpersons are covered in the Handbook statement on
education administrators, while college presidents are
included in the Handbook statement on general managers and
top executives.)
College faculty should have inquiring and analytical minds,
and a strong desire to pursue and disseminate knowledge.
They must be able to communicate clearly and logically, both
orally and in writing. They should be able to establish
rapport with students and, as models for them, be dedicated
to the principles of academic integrity and intellectual
honesty. Additionally, they must be self-motivated and able
to work in an environment where they receive little direct
supervision.
* Job Outlook
Employment of college and university faculty is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the year 2006 as enrollments in higher education
increase. Many additional openings will arise as faculty
members retire. Faculty retirements should increase
significantly from the late 1990s through 2006 as a large
number of faculty who entered the profession during the
1950s and 1960s reach retirement age. Most faculty members
likely to retire are full-time tenured professors. However,
in an effort to cut costs, some institutions are expected to
either leave these positions vacant or hire part-time,
non-tenured faculty as replacements. Prospective job
applicants should be prepared to face keen competition for
available jobs as growing numbers of Ph.D. graduates,
including foreign-born Ph.D.'s, vie for fewer full-time
openings. As more and more Ph.D.'s compete for openings,
master's degree holders may find competition for jobs even
more intense.
Enrollments in institutions of higher education increased in
the mid-1980s through the early 1990s despite a decline in
the traditional college-age (18-24) population. This
resulted from a higher proportion of 18- to 24-year-olds
attending college, along with a growing number of part-time,
female, and older students. Between 1996 and 2006, the
traditional college-age population will begin to grow again,
spurred by the leading edge of the baby-boom "echo"
generation (children of the baby-boomers) reaching college
age. College enrollment is projected to rise from 14 million
in 1996 to 16 million in 2006, an increase of 14 percent
(see accompanying chart).
In the past two decades, keen competition for faculty jobs
forced some applicants to accept part-time or short-term
academic appointments that offered little hope of tenure,
and others to seek nonacademic positions. This trend of
hiring adjunct or part-time faculty is likely to continue
due to financial difficulties faced by colleges and
universities. Many colleges, faced with reduced State
funding for higher education, have increased the hiring of
part-time faculty to save money on pay and benefits. Public
2-year colleges employ a significantly higher number of
part-time faculty as a percentage of their total staff than
public 4-year colleges and universities, but all
institutions have increased their part-time hiring. With
uncertainty over future funding, many colleges and
universities are continuing to cut costs by eliminating some
academic programs, increasing class size, and closely
monitoring all expenses.
Once enrollments and retirements start increasing at a
faster pace in the late 1990s, opportunities for college
faculty may begin to improve somewhat. Growing numbers of
students will necessitate hiring more faculty to teach. At
the same time, many faculty will be retiring, opening up
even more positions. Job prospects will continue to be
better in certain fieldsbusiness, engineering, health
science, and computer science, for examplethat offer
attractive nonacademic job opportunities and attract fewer
applicants for academic positions.
Employment of college faculty is affected by the nonacademic
job market. Excellent job prospects in a fieldfor example,
computer science from the late 1970s to the mid-1980scause
more students to enroll, increasing faculty needs in that
field. On the other hand, poor job prospects in a field,
such as history in recent years, discourages students and
reduces demand for faculty.
* Earnings
Earnings vary according to faculty rank and type of
institution, geographic area, and field. According to a
1995-96 survey by the American Association of University
Professors, salaries for full-time faculty averaged $51,000.
By rank, the average for professors was $65,400; associate
professors, $48,300; assistant professors, $40,100;
instructors, $30,800; and lecturers, $33,700. Faculty in
4-year institutions earn higher salaries, on the average,
than those in 2-year schools. Average salaries for faculty
in public institutions$50,400were lower in 1995-96 than
those for private independent institutions$57,500but
higher than those for religion-affiliated private
institutions$45,200. In fields with high-paying nonacademic
alternativesnotably medicine and law but also engineering
and business, among othersearnings exceed these averages.
In otherssuch as the humanities and educationthey are
lower.
Most faculty members have significant earnings in addition
to their base salary, from consulting, teaching additional
courses, research, writing for publication, or other
employment, both during the academic year and the summer.
Most college and university faculty enjoy some unique
benefits, including access to campus facilities, tuition
waivers for dependents, housing and travel allowances, and
paid sabbatical leaves. Part-time faculty have fewer
benefits than full-time faculty, and usually do not receive
health insurance, retirement benefits, or sabbatical leave.
* Related Occupations
College and university faculty function both as teachers and
researchers. They communicate information and ideas. Related
occupations include elementary and secondary school
teachers, librarians, writers, consultants, lobbyists,
trainers and employee development specialists, and policy
analysts. Faculty research activities often are similar to
those of scientists, as well as managers and administrators
in industry, government, and nonprofit research
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