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发信人: myosotis (阿金), 信区: AdvancedEdu
标 题: 98-99 ocupational outlook/Biological and Medical
发信站: BBS 水木清华站 (Mon Apr 6 22:11:32 1998)
Biological and Medical Scientists
(D.O.T. 022.081-010; 041.061, except -014, -018, -046, and -082;
041.067-010; 041.261-010)
Significant Points
* For biological scientists, a Ph.D. degree is generally required
for independent research; a master's degree is sufficient for
some jobs in applied research or product development; a
bachelor's degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs.
* For medical scientists, the Ph.D. degree in a biological
science is required; some need a medical degree.
* Doctoral degree holders face considerable competition for
independent research positions; those with a bachelor's or
master's degree in biological science can expect better
opportunities for nonresearch positions.
* Nature of the Work
Biological and medical scientists study living organisms and
their relationship to their environment. Most specialize in
some area of biology such as zoology (the study of animals)
or microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms).
Many biological scientists and virtually all medical
scientists work in research and development. Some conduct
basic research to advance knowledge of living organisms,
including viruses, bacteria, and other infectious agents.
Past research has resulted in the development of vaccines,
medicines, and treatments for cancer and other diseases.
Basic biological and medical research continues to provide
the building blocks necessary to develop solutions to human
health problems and to preserve and repair the natural
environment. Biological and medical scientists may work
independently in private industry, university, or government
laboratories, often exploring new areas of research or
expanding on specialized research started in graduate
school. Those who are not wage and salary workers in private
industry typically submit grant proposals to obtain funding
for their projects. Colleges and universities, private
industry, and Federal Government agencies, such as the
National Institutes of Health and the National Science
Foundation, contribute to the support of scientists whose
research proposals are determined to be financially feasible
and have the potential to advance new ideas or processes.
Biological and medical scientists who work in applied
research or product development use knowledge provided by
basic research to develop new drugs and medical treatments,
increase crop yields, and protect and clean up the
environment. They usually have less autonomy than basic
researchers to choose the emphasis of their research,
relying instead on market-driven directions based on the
firm's products and goals. Biological and medical scientists
doing applied research and product development in private
industry may be required to express their research plans or
results to nonscientists who are in a position to veto or
approve their ideas, and they must understand the business
impact of their work. Scientists are increasingly working as
part of teams, interacting with engineers, scientists of
other disciplines, business managers, and technicians. They
may also work with customers or suppliers, and manage
budgets.
Biological and medical scientists who conduct research
usually work in laboratories and use electron microscopes,
computers, thermal cyclers, or a wide variety of other
equipment. Some conduct experiments using laboratory animals
or greenhouse plants. For some biological scientists, a good
deal of research is performed outside of laboratories. For
example, a botanist may do research in tropical rain forests
to see what plants grow there, or an ecologist may study how
a forest area recovers after a fire.
Some biological and medical scientists work in managerial or
administrative positions, usually after spending some time
doing research and learning about the firm, agency, or
project. They may plan and administer programs for testing
foods and drugs, for example, or direct activities at zoos
or botanical gardens. Some biological scientists work as
consultants to business firms or to government, while others
test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products.
In the 1980s, swift advances in basic biological knowledge
related to genetics and molecules spurred growth in the
field of biotechnology. Biological and medical scientists
using this technology manipulate the genetic material of
animals or plants, attempting to make organisms more
productive or resistant to disease. Research using
biotechnology techniques, such as recombining DNA, has led
to the discovery of important drugs, including human insulin
and growth hormone. Many other substances not previously
available in large quantities are starting to be produced by
biotechnological means; some may be useful in treating
cancer and other diseases. Today, many biological and
medical scientists are involved in biotechnology, including
those who work on the Human Genome project, isolating,
identifying, and sequencing human genes. This work continues
to lead to the discovery of the genes associated with
specific diseases and inherited traits, such as certain
types of cancer or obesity. These advances in biotechnology
have opened up research opportunities in almost all areas of
biology, including commercial applications in agriculture,
environmental remediation, and the food and chemical
industries.
Most biological scientists who come under the broad category
of biologist are further classified by the type of organism
they study or by the specific activity they perform,
although recent advances in the understanding of basic life
processes at the molecular and cellular levels have blurred
some traditional classifications.
Aquatic biologists study plants and animals living in water.
Marine biologists study salt water organisms and
limnologists study fresh water organisms. Marine biologists
are sometimes erroneously called oceanographers, but
oceanography is the study of the physical characteristics of
oceans and the ocean floor. (See the statement on geologists
and geophysicists elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things.
They try to understand the complex chemical combinations and
reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and
heredity. Much of the work in biotechnology is done by
biochemists and molecular biologists because this technology
involves understanding the complex chemistry of life.
Botanists study plants and their environment. Some study all
aspects of plant life; others specialize in areas such as
identification and classification of plants, the structure
and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant
processes, the causes and cures of plant diseases, and the
geological record of plants.
Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics
of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi.
Medical microbiologists study the relationship between
organisms and disease or the effect of antibiotics on
microorganisms. Other microbiologists may specialize in
environmental, food, agricultural, or industrial
microbiology, virology (the study of viruses), or immunology
(the study of mechanisms that fight infections). Many
microbiologists use biotechnology to advance knowledge of
cell reproduction and human disease.
Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals,
both in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular
level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists
may specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction,
photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the
physiology of a certain area or system of the organism.
Zoologists study animalsusually
identified by the animal group studiedetween organisms and their environments and the effects of
influences such as population size, pollutants, rainfall,
temperature, and altitude.
Agricultural scientists, who may also be classified as
biological scientists, are included in a separate statement
elsewhere in the Handbook.
Biological scientists who do biomedical research are usually
called medical scientists. Medical scientists working on
basic research into normal biological systems often do so to
understand the causes of and to discover treatment for
disease and other health problems. Medical scientists may
try to identify the kinds of changes in a cell, chromosome,
or even gene that signal the development of medical
problems, such as different types of cancer. After
identifying structures of or changes in organisms that
provide clues to health problems, medical scientists may
then work on the treatment of problems. For example, a
medical scientist involved in cancer research might try to
formulate a combination of drugs which will lessen the
effects of the disease. Medical scientists who have a
medical degree might then administer the drugs to patients
in clinical trials, monitor their reactions, and observe the
results. (Medical scientists who do not have a medical
degree normally collaborate with a medical doctor who deals
directly with patients.) The medical scientist might then
return to the laboratory to examine the results and, if
necessary, adjust the dosage levels to reduce negative side
effects or to try to induce even better results. In addition
to using basic research to develop treatments for health
problems, medical scientists attempt to discover ways to
prevent health problems from developing, such as affirming
the link between smoking and increased risk of lung cancer,
or alcoholism and liver disease.
* Working Conditions
Biological and medical scientists generally work regular
hours in offices or laboratories and usually are not exposed
to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Those who work with
dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory
must follow strict safety procedures to avoid contamination.
Medical scientists also spend time working in clinics and
hospitals administering drugs and treatments to patients in
clinical trials. Many biological scientists such as
botanists, ecologists, and zoologists take field trips which
involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living
conditions.
Biological and medical scientists who depend on grant money
to support their research may be under pressure to meet
deadlines and conform to rigid grant-writing specifications
when preparing proposals to seek new or extended funding.
* Employment
Biological and medical scientists held about 118,000 jobs in
1996. Almost 1 in 4 biological scientists were employed by
Federal, State, and local governments. Federal biological
scientists worked mainly in the U.S. Departments of
Agriculture, the Interior, and Defense, and in the National
Institutes of Health. Most of the rest worked in the drug
industry, which includes pharmaceutical and biotechnology
establishments; hospitals; or research and testing
laboratories. About 1 in 5 medical scientists worked in
State government, with most of the remainder found in
research and testing laboratories, educational institutions,
the drug industry, and hospitals.
In addition, many biological and medical scientists held
biology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See
the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in
the Handbook.)
* Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
For biological scientists, the Ph.D. degree generally is
required for independent research and for advancement to
administrative positions. A master's degree is sufficient
for some jobs in applied research or product development and
for jobs in management, inspection, sales, and service. The
bachelor's degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs.
Some graduates with a bachelor's degree start as biological
scientists in testing and inspection, or get jobs related to
biological science such as technical sales or service
representatives. In some cases, graduates with a bachelor's
degree are able to work in a laboratory environment on their
own projects, but this is unusual. Some may work as research
assistants. Others become biological technicians, medical
laboratory technologists or, with courses in education, high
school biology teachers. (See the statements on clinical
laboratory technologists and technicians; science
technicians; and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary
school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many with a
bachelor's degree in biology enter medical, dental,
veterinary, or other health profession schools.. Some enter a
wide range of occupations with little or no connection to
biology.
Most colleges and universities offer bachelor's degrees in
biological science and many offer advanced degrees.
Curriculums for advanced degrees often emphasize a subfield
such as microbiology or botany, but not all universities
offer all curriculums. Advanced degree programs include
classroom and field work, laboratory research, and a thesis
or dissertation. Biological scientists who have advanced
degrees often take temporary postdoctoral research positions
which provide specialized research experience. In private
industry, some may become managers or administrators within
biology; others leave biology for nontechnical managerial,
administrative, or sales jobs.
Biological scientists should be able to work independently
or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and
concisely, both orally and in writing. Those in private
industry, especially those who aspire to management or
administrative positions, should possess strong business and
communication skills and be familiar with regulatory issues
and marketing and management techniques. Those doing field
research in remote areas must have physical stamina.
The Ph.D. degree in a biological science is the minimum
education required for prospective medical scientists
because the work of medical scientists is almost entirely
research oriented. A Ph.D. degree qualifies one to do
research on basic life processes or on particular medical
problems or diseases, and to analyze and interpret the
results of experiments on patients. Medical scientists who
administer drug or gene therapy to human patients, or who
otherwise interact medically with patientsforming other invasive
procedures usually expected to spend several years in a postdoctoral
position before they are offered permanent jobs.
Postdoctoral work provides valuable laboratory experience,
including experience in specific processes and techniques,
such as gene splicing, which are transferable to other
research projects. In some institutions, the postdoctoral
position can lead to a permanent position.
* Job Outlook
Despite prospects of faster-than-average job growth over the
1996-2006 period, biological and medical scientists can
expect to face considerable competition for coveted basic
research positions. Much research and development, including
many areas of medical research, is funded by the Federal
Government. Recent budget tightening has led to smaller
increases in research and development expenditures, further
limiting the dollar amount of each grant and slowing the
growth of the number of grants awarded to researchers. At
the same time, the number of newly trained scientists has
continued to increase at a steady rate, so both new and
established scientists have experienced greater difficulty
winning and renewing research grants. If the number of
advanced degrees awarded continues to grow unabated, this
competitive scenario is likely to persist. Additionally,
applied research positions in private industry may become
more difficult if more scientists seek jobs in private
industry than in the past due to the competitive job market
for college and university faculty.
Opportunities for those with a bachelor's or master's degree
in biological science are expected to be better. The number
of science-related jobs in sales, marketing, and research
management, for which non-Ph.D.'s generally qualify, are
expected to be more plentiful than independent research
positions. They may also fill positions as science or
engineering technicians or health technologists and
technicians. Some become high school biology teachers, while
those with a doctorate in biological science may become
college and university faculty. (See statements on science
and engineering technicians, health technologists and
technicians, secondary school teachers, and college and
university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Biological and medical scientists enjoyed very rapid gains
in employment between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s, in part
reflecting increased staffing requirements in new
biotechnology companies. Employment growth should slow as
increases in the number of new biotechnology firms slows and
existing firms merge or are absorbed into larger ones.
However, much of the basic biological research done in
recent years has resulted in new knowledge, including the
isolation and identification of new genes. Biological and
medical scientists will be needed to take this knowledge to
the next stage, which is the understanding of how certain
genes function within an entire organism so that gene
therapies can be developed to treat diseases. Even
pharmaceutical and other firms not solely engaged in
biotechnology are expected to increasingly use biotechnology
techniques, spurring employment increases for biological and
medical scientists. In addition, efforts to discover new and
improved ways to clean up and preserve the environment will
continue to add to growth. More biological scientists will
be needed to determine the environmental impact of industry
and government actions and to prevent or correct
environmental problems. Expected expansion in research
related to health issues, such as AIDS, cancer, and
Alzheimer's disease , should also result in growth.
Biological and medical scientists are less likely to lose
their jobs during recessions than those in many other
occupations because many are employed on long-term research
projects. However, a recession could further influence the
amount of money allocated to new research and development
efforts, particularly in areas of risky or innovative
research. A recession could also limit the possibility of
extension or renewal of existing projects.
* Earnings
According to the National Association of Colleges and
Employers, beginning salary offers in private industry in
1997 averaged $25,400 a year for bachelor's degree
recipients in biological science; about $26,900 for master's
degree recipients; and about $52,400 for doctoral degree
recipients.
Median annual earnings for biological and life scientists
were about $36,300 in 1996; the middle 50 percent earned
between $28,400 and $50,900. Ten percent earned less than
$22,000, and 10 percent earned over $66,000. For medical
scientists, median annual earnings were about $34,300; the
middle 50 percent earned between $25,200 and $52,200. Ten
percent earned less than $18,700, and 10 percent earned over
$74,000.
In the Federal Government in 1997, general biological
scientists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial
positions earned an average salary of $52,100;
microbiologists, $58,700; ecologists, $52,700;
physiologists, $65,900; and geneticists, $62,700.
* Related Occupations
Many other occupations deal with living organisms and
require a level of training similar to that of biological
and medical scientists. These include the conservation
occupations of forester, range manager, and soil
conservationist; animal breeders, horticulturists, soil
scientists, and most other agricultural scientists. Many
health occupations are also related to those in the
biological sciences, such as medical doctors, dentists, and
veterinarians.
* Sources of Additional Information
For information on careers in the biological sciences,
contact:
American Institute of Biological Sciences, Suite 200, 1444 I
St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Homepage: http://www.aibs.org
For information on careers in physiology, contact:
American Physiological Society, Education Office, 9650
Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. Homepage:
http://www.faseb.org/aps
For information on careers in biotechnology, contact:
Biotechnology Industry Organization, 1625 K St. NW., Suite
1100, Washington, DC 20006.
For information on careers in biochemistry, contact:
American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814.
For information on careers in biophysics, contact:
Biophysical Society, 9650 Rockville Pike, Room 0512,
Bethesda, MD 20814.
For information on careers in botany, contact:
Botanical Society of America, Business Office, 1735 Neil
Ave., Columbus, OH 43210-1293. Homepage:
http://www.botany.org
For information on careers in microbiology, contact:
American Society for Microbiology, Office of Education and
Training005. Homepage: http://www.asmusa.org
Information on acquiring a job as a biological or medical
scientist with the Federal government may be obtained from
the Office of Personnel Management through a telephone-based
system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S.
Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000 (TDD
912 744-2299). That number is not toll-free and charges may
result. Information also is available from their Internet
site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov
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Kristina Shelley
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Shelley_T@bls.gov
Last modified: January 15, 1998
URL: http://stats/bls.gov/oco/ocos047.htm
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