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发信人: myosotis (阿金), 信区: AdvancedEdu
标 题: 98-99 ocupational outlook/omputer Scientists, Com
发信站: BBS 水木清华站 (Mon Apr 6 22:15:50 1998)
omputer Scientists, Computer Engineers, and Systems Analysts
(D.O.T. 030.062-010, .162-014, .167-014; 031; 032; 033; 039; and
109.067-010)
Significant Points
* Expected to be the top 3 fastest growing occupations and among
the top 20 in the number of new jobs as computer applications
continue to expand throughout the economy.
* A bachelor's degree is virtually a prerequisite for most
employers. Relevant work experience also is very important. For
some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are
preferred.
* Nature of the Work
The rapid spread of computers has generated a need for
highly trained workers to design and develop new hardware
and software systems and to incorporate technological
advances into new or existing systems. The Handbook refers
to this group of professionals as computer scientists,
computer engineers, and systems analysts, but in reality
this group includes a wide range of professional
computer-related occupations. Job titles used to describe
this broad category of workers evolve rapidly, reflecting
new areas of specialization or changes in technology as well
as the preferences and practices of employers. Although many
narrow specializations exist, the professional specialty
group is commonly referred to as computer scientists,
computer engineers, and systems analysts.
The title computer scientist can be applied to a wide range
computer professionals who generally design computers and
the software that runs them, develop information
technologies, and develop and adapt principles for applying
computers to new uses. Computer scientists perform many of
the same duties as other computer professionals throughout a
normal workday, but their jobs are distinguished by the
higher level of theoretical expertise and innovation they
apply to complex problems and the creation or application of
new technology.
Computer scientists can work as theorists, researchers, or
inventors. Those employed by academic institutions work in
areas ranging from complexity theory, to hardware, to
programming language design. Some work on multi-discipline
projects, such as developing and advancing uses of virtual
reality in robotics. Their counterparts in private industry
work in areas such as applying theory, developing
specialized languages or information technologies, or
designing programming tools, knowledge-based systems, or
even computer games.
Computer engineers also work with the hardware and software
aspects of systems design and development. Whereas computer
scientists emphasize the application of theory, computer
engineers emphasize the building of prototypes, although
there is much crossover. Computer engineers generally apply
the theories and principles of science and mathematics to
the design of hardware, software, networks, and processes to
solve technical problems. They often work as part of a team
that designs new computing devices or computer-related
equipment, systems, or software. Computer hardware engineers
generally design, develop, test, and supervise the
manufacture of computer hardwarefor example, chips or
device controllers. Software engineers, on the other hand,
are involved in the design and development of software
systems for control and automation of manufacturing,
business, and management processes. Software engineers or
software developers also may design and develop both
packaged and systems software or be involved in creating
custom software applications for clients. These
professionals also possess strong programming skills, but
they are more concerned with analyzing and solving
programming problems than with simply writing the code for
the programs.
Far more numerous, systems analysts use their knowledge and
skills to solve computer problems and enable computer
technology to meet the individual needs of an organization.
They study business, scientific, or engineering data
processing problems and design new solutions using
computers. This process may include planning and developing
new computer systems or devising ways to apply existing
systems' resources to additional operations. Systems
analysts may design entirely new systems, including both
hardware and software, or add a single new software
application to harness more of the computer's power. They
work to help an organization realize the maximum benefit
from its investment in equipment, personnel, and business
processes. Most systems analysts generally work with a
specific type of system depending on the type of
organization they work forfor example, business, accounting
or financial systems, or scientific and engineering systems.
Companies generally seek business systems analysts who
specialize in the type of systems they use.
Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the systems
problem with managers and users to determine its exact
nature. Much time is devoted to clearly defining the goals
of the system and understanding the individual steps used to
achieve them so that the problem can be broken down into
separate programmable procedures. Analysts then use
techniques such as structured analysis, data modeling,
information engineering, mathematical model building,
sampling, and cost accounting to plan the system. Analysts
must specify the inputs to be accessed by the system, design
the processing steps, and format the output to meet the
users' needs. Once the design has been developed, systems
analysts prepare charts and diagrams that describe it in
terms that managers and other users can understand. They may
prepare cost-benefit and return-on-investment analyses to
help management decide whether implementing the proposed
system will be financially feasible.
When a system is accepted, analysts determine what computer
hardware and software will be needed to set it up. They
coordinate tests and observe initial use of the system to
ensure it performs as planned. They prepare specifications,
work diagrams, and structure charts for computer programmers
to follow and then work with them to "debug," or eliminate
errors from the system.
In some organizations a single worker called a
programmer-analyst is responsible for both systems analysis
and programming. (The work of computer programmers is
described elsewhere in the Handbook.) As this becomes more
commonplace, these analysts will increasingly work with
Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools and
object-oriented programming languages, as well as
client/server applications development, and multimedia and
Internet technology.
One obstacle associated with expanding computer use is the
inability of different computer systems to communicate with
each other. Because maintaining up-to-date
informationaccounting records, sales figures, or budget
projections, for exampleis important in modern
organizations, systems analysts may be instructed to make
the computer systems in each department compatible so that
information can be shared. Many systems analysts are
involved with "networking" or connecting all the computers
in an individual office, department, or establishment. A
primary goal of networking is to allow users to retrieve
data from a mainframe computer or a server and use it on
their machine. This connection also allows data to be
entered into the mainframe from a personal computer.
Analysts must design the hardware and software to allow free
exchange of data, custom applications, and the computer
power to process it all. They study the seemingly
incompatible pieces and create ways to link them so users
can access information from any part of the system. Networks
come in many variations and network systems and data
communications analysts design, test, and evaluate systems
such as Local Area Networks (LAN), Wide Area Networks (WAN),
Internet, and Intranet and other data communications
systems. These analysts perform network modeling, analysis
and planning, and even research and recommend necessary
hardware and software.
Other computer professionals include database administrators
and computer support specialists. Database administrators
work with database management systems software, coordinating
changes to, testing, and implementing computer databases.
Since they also may be responsible for design implementation
and system security, database administrators plan and
coordinate security measures. Computer support specialists
provide assistance and advice to users. They interpret
problems and provide technical support for hardware,
software, and systems. Support specialists may work within
an organization or directly for a computer or software
vendor. Increasingly, these technical professionals work for
help-desk or support services firms, providing customer
support on a contract basis to clients as more of this type
of work is outsourced.
Many others specialize in analysis, application, or design
of a particular system or piece of the system. Network or
systems administrators, for example, may install, configure,
and support an organizations systems or portion of a system.
Telecommunications specialists generally are involved with
the interfacing of computer and communications equipment.
Computer security specialists are responsible for planning,
coordinating, and implementing an organizations' information
security measures. These and other growing specialty
occupations reflect the increasing emphasis on client-server
applications, the growth of the Internet, the expansion of
World Wide Web applications and Intranets, and the demand
for more end-user support. An example of this is the growing
number of job titles relating to the Internet and World Wide
Web such as Internet and Web developers, or Webmasters.
* Working Conditions
Computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems
analysts normally work in offices or laboratories in
comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a
weekthe same as many other professional or office workers.
However, evening or weekend work may be necessary to meet
deadlines or solve specific problems. Given the technology
available today, telecommuting is becoming more common for
computer professionals. More work, including technical
support, can be done from remote locations using modems,
laptops, electronic mail, and even through the Internet. It
is now possible for technical personnel, such as computer
support specialists, to tap into a customer's computer
remotely to identify and fix problems.
Like other workers who spend long periods of time in front
of a computer terminal typing on a keyboard, computer
scientists, engineers, and systems analysts are susceptible
to eye strain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems
such as carpal tunnel syndrome or cumulative trauma
disorder.
* Employment
Computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems
analysts held about 933,000 jobs in 1996, including about
58,000 who were self-employed. About 216,000 were computer
engineers, about 506,000 were computer systems analysts, and
about 212,000 were database administrators, computer support
specialists, and all other computer scientists.
Although they are employed in most industries, the greatest
concentration is in the computer and data processing
services industry. This industry includes firms providing
nearly every service related to commercial computer use on a
contract basis. Services include customized computer
programming services and applications and systems software
design; the design, development, and production of
prepackaged computer software; systems integration,
networking, and reengineering services; data processing and
preparation services; information retrieval services
including on-line data bases and Internet services; on-site
computer facilities management; the development and
management of data bases; and a variety of specialized
consulting services. Many others work for government
agencies, manufacturers of computer and related electronic
equipment, insurance companies, financial institutions, and
universities.
A growing number of computer professionals are employed on a
temporary or contract basismany of whom are self-employed,
working independently as contractors or self-employed
consultants. For example, a company installing a new
computer system may need the services of several systems
analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of
them would be needed once the system is functioning, the
company might contract directly with the systems analysts
themselves or with a temporary help agency or consulting
firm. Such jobs may last from several months up to 2 years
or more. This growing practice enables companies to bring in
people with the exact skills they need to complete a
particular project, rather than having to spend time or
money training or retraining existing workers. Often,
experienced consultants then train a company's in-house
staff as a project develops.
* Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
While there is no universally accepted way to prepare for a
job as a computer professional because employers'
preferences depend on the work to be done, a bachelor's
degree is virtually a prerequisite for most employers.
Relevant work experience also is very important. For some of
the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are
preferred.
Computer hardware engineers generally require a bachelor's
degree in computer engineering or electrical engineering,
whereas software engineers are more likely to need a degree
in computer science. For systems analyst or even database
administrator positions, many employers seek applicants who
have a bachelor's degree in computer science, information
science, computer information systems, or data processing.
Computer support specialists may also need a bachelor's
degree in a computer-related field, as well as significant
experience working with computers, including programming
skills. Generally, a Ph.D., or at least a master's degree in
computer science or engineering, is required for computer
scientist jobs in research laboratories or academic
institutions.
Many people develop advanced computer skills in other
occupations in which they work extensively with computers,
and then transfer into computer occupations. For example, an
accountant may become a systems analyst or computer support
specialist specializing in accounting systems development,
or an individual may move into a systems analyst job after
working as a computer programmer.
Regardless of college major, employers generally look for
people who are familiar with programming languages and have
broad knowledge of and experience with computer systems and
technologies, strong problem-solving and analysis skills,
and good interpersonal skills. Courses in computer
programming or systems design offer good preparation for a
job in this field. For jobs in a business environment,
employers usually want systems analysts to have a background
in business management or a closely related field, while a
background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or
engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented
organizations. Since employers generally look for
experience, entry-level employees enhance their employment
opportunities by participating in internship or co-op
programs offered through their schools. A related background
in the industry in which the job is located, such as
financial services, banking, or accounting, can also give an
applicant an edge.
Computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems
analysts must be able to think logically and have good
communication skills. They often deal with a number of tasks
simultaneously; the ability to concentrate and pay close
attention to detail is important. Although many computer
specialists sometimes work independently, they often work in
teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate
effectively with computer personnel, such as programmers and
managers, as well as with users or other staff who may have
no technical computer background.
Systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems
analysts with experience. Those who show leadership ability
also can advance to management positions, such as manager of
information systems or chief information officer.
Computer engineers and scientists employed in industry may
eventually advance into managerial or project leadership
positions. Those employed in academic institutions can
become heads of research departments or published
authorities in their field. Computer professionals with
several years of experience and considerable expertise in a
particular subject area or application may find lucrative
opportunities as independent consultants or choose to start
their own computer consulting firms.
Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field
that continuous study is necessary to keep skills up to
date. Continuing education is usually offered by employers,
hardware and software vendors, colleges and universities, or
private training institutions. Additional training may come
from professional development seminars offered by
professional computing societies.
As technology becomes more sophisticated and complex, a
higher level of skill and expertise is demanded by employers
in all areas. Technical or professional certification is
becoming a more common way to ensure employers of a level of
competency or quality in a prospective employee. Many
product vendors offer and may even require professionals who
work with their products to be certified. Voluntary
certification is also available through organizations such
as the Institute for Certification of Computing
Professionals (ICCP). ICCP offers the designation Certified
Computing Professional (CCP) to those who have at least 4
years of work experience as a computer professional, or at
least 2 years experience and a college degree. Candidates
must pass a core examination testing general knowledge, plus
exams in two specialty areas, or in one specialty area and
two computer programming languages. The Quality Assurance
Institute (QAI) awards the designation Certified Quality
Analyst (CQA) to those who meet education and experience
requirements, pass an exam, and endorse a code of ethics.
Neither designation is mandatory, but professional
certification may provide a job seeker a competitive
advantage.
* Job Outlook
Computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems
analysts are expected to be the three fastest growing
occupations through the year 2006. Employment of computing
professionals is expected to increase much faster than
average as technology becomes more sophisticated and
organizations continue to adopt and integrate these
technologies, making for plentiful job openings. Growth will
be driven by very rapid growth in computer and data
processing services, which is projected to be the fastest
growing industry. In addition, thousands of job openings
will result annually from the need to replace workers who
move into managerial positions or other occupations or who
leave the labor force.
Computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems
analysts will need to continually upgrade their technical
expertise and improve their ability to interact with users
as the sophistication and complexity of technology advances.
As more computing power is made available to the individual
user and users develop more sophisticated knowledge of
computers, they become more aware of the machine's potential
and better able to suggest how computers could be used to
increase their own productivity and that of the
organization. Increasingly, users are able to design and
implement more of their own applications and programs. The
result is a growing demand for computer support specialists,
help desk personnel, and technical consultants.
The demand for "networking" to facilitate the sharing of
information, the expansion of client/server environments,
and the need for specialists to use their knowledge and
skills in a problem solving capacity will be a major factor
in the rising demand for systems analysts. Falling prices of
computer hardware and software should continue to induce
more businesses to expand computerized operations and
integrate new technologies. In order to maintain a
competitive edge and operate more cost effectively, firms
will continue to demand computer professionals who are
knowledgeable about the latest technologies and able to
apply them to meet the needs of businesses.
New growth areas generally arise from the development of new
technologies. Therefore, it is important for computer
professionals at all levels to keep their skills up to date.
The expanding integration of Internet technologies by
businesses, for example, has resulted in a rising demand for
a variety of skilled professionals who can develop and
support Internet, Intranet, and World Wide Web applications.
Growth in these areas is also expected to create demand for
computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems
analysts knowledgeable about network, data and
communications security.
Since employers look for the most qualified applicants
possessing a high level of technical expertise, individuals
with an advanced degree in computer science, management
information systems (MIS), computer engineering, or an MBA
with a concentration in information systems should enjoy
very favorable employment prospects. College graduates with
a bachelor's degree in computer science, computer
engineering, information science, or information systems
should also enjoy very favorable prospects, particularly if
they have supplemented their formal education with some
level of practical experience. College graduates with
non-computer science majors who have had courses in computer
programming, systems analysis, and other data processing
areas, as well as training or experience in an applied
field, should also be able to find jobs as computer
professionals. Those who are familiar with client/server
environments, CASE tools and object-oriented programming,
Internet, Intranet, and multimedia technology will have an
even greater advantage, as will individuals with significant
networking, database, and systems experience. Employers will
continue to seek computer professionals who can combine
strong programming and traditional systems analysis skills
with good interpersonal and business skills.
* Earnings
Median annual earnings of computer systems analysts and
scientists who worked full time in 1996 were about $46,300.
The middle 50 percent earned between $34,000 and $59,900.
The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,800 and the
highest tenth, more than $76,200. Computer scientists with
advanced degrees generally earn more than systems analysts.
Starting salaries for computer scientists or computer
engineers with a bachelor's degree can be significantly
higher than starting salaries of bachelor's degree graduates
in many other fields. According to the National Association
of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers for
graduates with a bachelor's degree in computer engineering
averaged about $39,722 a year in 1997; those with a master's
degree, $44,734 a year; and those with a Ph.D., $63,367.
Starting offers for graduates with a bachelor's degree in
computer science averaged about $36,597 a year; in
information sciences, about $35,407 a year; and in systems
analysis, about $43,800 a year in 1997. Offers for those
with the bachelor's degree vary by functional area for all
types of employers, as shown in the following tabulation.
Computer programming $35,167
Information systems 34,689
Systems analysis and design 36,261
Software design and development 39,190
Hardware design and development 41,237
Offers for graduates with a master's degree in computer
science in 1997 averaged $45,853 a year; and those with a
Ph.D. in computer and information sciences, $61,306.
According to Robert Half International Inc., starting
salaries in 1997 for systems analysts employed by large
establishments employing more than 50 staff members ranged
from $46,000 to $57,500. Salaries for those employed in
small establishments ranged from $38,000 to $48,000.
Salaries for programmer-analysts ranged from $39,000 to
$50,000 in large establishments and $33,500 to $43,000 in
small establishments. Starting salaries ranged from $54,000
to $67,500 for data base administrators, from $36,000 to
$55,000 for network administrators, from $25,000 to $36,500
for help desk support technicians, and from $49,000 to
$67,500 for software development specialists.
In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for systems
analysts who are recent college graduates with a bachelor's
degree was about $19,520 a year in early 1997; for those
with a superior academic record, $24,180. The average annual
salary for computer engineers in the Federal Government in
nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was
$62,900 in early 1997.
* Related Occupations
Other workers who use research, logic, and creativity to
solve business problems are computer programmers, financial
analysts, urban planners, engineers, statisticians,
mathematicians, management analysts, actuaries, and
operations research analysts.
* Sources of Additional Information
Further information about computer careers is available
from:
Association for Computing (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY
10036.
IEEE Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730
Massachusetts Ave., NW., Washington, DC 20036-1992.
Information about the designation Certified Computing
Professional is available from:
Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals
(ICCP), 2200 East Devon Ave., Suite 268, Des Plaines, IL
60018. Homepage: http://www.iccp.org
Information about the designation Certified Quality Analyst
is available from:
Quality Assurance Institute, 7575 Dr. Phillips Blvd., Suite
350, Orlando, FL 32819.
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