BBS水木清华站∶精华区
发信人: myosotis (阿金), 信区: AdvancedEdu
标 题: 98－99 ocupational outlook/Engineers
发信站: BBS 水木清华站 (Mon Apr 6 22:19:49 1998)
Significant Points
* A bachelor's degree in engineering is almost always
required for beginning engineering jobs. Good employment
opportunities are expected for new graduates.
* Starting salaries are significantly higher than those of
bachelor's degree graduates in other fields.
* Knowledge of technological advances must be acquired
through continued study and education.
* Nature of the Work
Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and
mathematics to research and develop economical solutions to
practical technical problems. Their work is the link between
scientific discoveries and commercial applications.
Engineers design products, the machinery to build those
products, the factories in which those products are made,
and the systems that ensure the quality of the product and
efficiency of the workforce and manufacturing process. They
design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings,
highways, and transit systems. They develop and implement
improved ways to extract, process, and use raw materials,
such as petroleum and natural gas. They develop new
materials that both improve the performance of products, and
make implementing advances in technology possible. They
harness the power of the sun, the earth, atoms, and
electricity for use in supplying the Nation's power needs,
and create millions of products using power. Their knowledge
is applied to improving many things, including the quality
of health care, the safety of food products, and the
efficient operation of financial systems.
Engineers consider many factors when developing a new
product. For example, in developing an industrial robot,
they determine precisely what function it needs to perform;
design and test components; fit them together in an
integrated plan; and evaluate the design's overall
effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process
applies to many different products, such as chemicals,
computers, gas turbines, helicopters, and toys.
In addition to design and development, many engineers work
in testing, production, or maintenance. They supervise
production in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns,
and test manufactured products to maintain quality. They
also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some
work in engineering management or in sales, where an
engineering background enables them to discuss the technical
aspects of a product and assist in planning its installation
or use. (See the statements on engineering, science, and
computer systems managers and manufacturers' and wholesale
sales representatives elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Most engineers specialize in a particular area. More than 25
major specialties are recognized by professional societies,
and within the major branches are numerous subdivisions.
Structural, environmental, and transportation engineering,
for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering.
Engineers may also specialize in one industry, such as motor
vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as jet engines
or ceramic materials.
This section, which contains an overall discussion of
engineering, is followed by separate sections on 10
engineering branches: Aerospace; chemical; civil; electrical
and electronics; industrial; mechanical; metallurgical,
ceramic, and materials; mining; nuclear; and petroleum
engineering. Some branches of engineering not covered in
detail here, but for which there are established college
programs, include architectural engineeringthe design of a
building's internal support structure; biomedical
engineeringthe application of engineering to medical and
physiological problems; environmental engineeringa growing
discipline involved with identifying, solving, and
alleviating environmental problems; and marine
engineeringthe design and installation of ship machinery
and propulsion systems.
Engineers in each branch have a base of knowledge and
training that can be applied in many fields. Electrical and
electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical,
computer, missile guidance, and power distribution fields.
Because there are many separate problems to solve in a large
engineering project, engineers in one field often work
closely with specialists in other scientific, engineering,
and business occupations.
Engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs;
simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system
operates; and generate blueprints for parts. Many engineers
also use computers to monitor product quality and control
process efficiency. They spend a great deal of time writing
reports and consulting with other engineers, as complex
projects often require an interdisciplinary team of
engineers. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major
components or entire projects.
* Working Conditions
Most engineers work in office buildings, laboratories, or
industrial plants. Others spend a considerable amount of
time outdoors at construction sites, mines, and oil and gas
exploration sites, where they monitor or direct operations
or solve onsite problems. Some engineers travel extensively
to plants or worksites.
Most engineers work a standard 40-hour week. At times,
deadlines or design standards may bring extra pressure to a
job. When this happens, engineers may work long hours and
experience considerable stress.
* Employment
In 1996, engineers held 1,382,000 jobs. Chart 1 shows the
employment of the engineering disciplines covered in this
statement. Forty-six percent of all wage and salary
engineering jobs were located in manufacturing industries
such as electrical and electronic equipment, industrial
machinery, aircraft and parts, motor vehicles, chemicals,
search and navigation equipment, fabricated metal products,
and guided missiles and space vehicles. In 1996, 716,000
wage and salary jobs were in nonmanufacturing industries,
primarily in engineering and architectural services,
research and testing services, and business services, where
firms designed construction projects or did other
engineering work on a contract basis for organizations in
other parts of the economy. Engineers also worked in the
communications, utilities, and construction industries.
Federal, State, and local governments employed about 178,000
wage and salary engineers in 1996. Over half of these were
in the Federal Government, mainly in the Departments of
Defense, Transportation, Agriculture, Interior, and Energy,
and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Most engineers in State and local government agencies worked
in highway and public works departments. In 1996, 46,000
engineers were self-employed, many as consultants.
Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large
cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are
concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas,
as discussed in statements later in this chapter.
* Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
A bachelor's degree in engineering is usually required for
beginning engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree
in a physical science or mathematics may occasionally
qualify for some engineering jobs, especially in engineering
specialties in high demand. Most engineering degrees are
granted in electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering.
However, engineers trained in one branch may work in related
branches; for example, many aerospace engineers have
training in mechanical engineering. This flexibility allows
employers to meet staffing needs in new technologies and
specialties in which engineers are in short supply. It also
allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment
prospects, or to ones that match their interests more
closely.
In addition to the standard engineering degree, many
colleges offer degrees in engineering technology, which are
offered as either 2- or 4-year programs. These programs
prepare students for practical design and production work
rather than for jobs that require more theoretical,
scientific and mathematical knowledge. Graduates of 4-year
technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained
by graduates with a bachelor's degree in engineering. Some
employers regard them as having skills between those of a
technician and an engineer.
Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty
positions, but is not required for the majority of
entry-level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain graduate
degrees in engineering or business administration to learn
new technology, broaden their education, and enhance
promotion opportunities. Many high-level executives in
government and industry began their careers as engineers.
About 320 colleges and universities offer bachelor's degree
programs in engineering that are accredited by the
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET),
and about 250 colleges offer accredited bachelor's degree
programs in engineering technology. ABET accreditation is
based on an examination of an engineering program's faculty,
curricular content, facilities, and admissions standards.
Although most institutions offer programs in the major
branches of engineering, only a few offer some of the
smaller specialties. Also, programs of the same title may
vary in content. For example, some emphasize industrial
practices, preparing students for a job in industry, while
others are more theoretical and are better for students
preparing to take graduate work. Therefore, students should
investigate curricula and check accreditations carefully
before selecting a college. Admissions requirements for
undergraduate engineering schools include a solid background
in mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and
calculus), sciences (biology, chemistry, and physics), and
courses in English, social studies, humanities, and
computers.
Bachelor's degree programs in engineering are typically
designed to last 4 years, but many students find that it
takes between 4 and 5 years to complete their studies. In a
typical 4-year college curriculum, the first 2 years are
spent studying mathematics, basic sciences, introductory
engineering, humanities, and social sciences. In the last 2
years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a
concentration in one branch. For example, the last 2 years
of an aerospace program might include courses such as fluid
mechanics, heat transfer, applied aerodynamics, analytical
mechanics, flight vehicle design, trajectory dynamics, and
aerospace propulsion systems. Some programs offer a general
engineering curriculum; students then specialize in graduate
school or on the job.
Some engineering schools and 2-year colleges have agreements
whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engineering
education and the engineering school automatically admits
students for their last 2 years. In addition, a few
engineering schools have arrangements whereby a student
spends 3 years in a liberal arts college studying
pre-engineering subjects and 2 years in the engineering
school, and receives a bachelor's degree from each. Some
colleges and universities offer 5-year master's degree
programs. Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine
classroom study and practical work, permitting students to
gain valuable experience and finance part of their
education.
All 50 States and the District of Columbia require
registration for engineers whose work may affect life,
health, or property, or who offer their services to the
public. Registration generally requires a degree from an
ABET-accredited engineering program, 4 years of relevant
work experience, and passing a State examination. Some
States will not register people with degrees in engineering
technology. Engineers may be registered in several states.
Engineers should be creative, inquisitive, analytical, and
detail-oriented. They should be able to work as part of a
team and be able to communicate well, both orally and in
writing.
Beginning engineering graduates usually work under the
supervision of experienced engineers and, in larger
companies, may also receive formal classroom or seminar-type
training. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are
assigned more difficult projects with greater independence
to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions.
Engineers may advance to become technical specialists or to
supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some
eventually become engineering managers or enter other
managerial, management support, or sales jobs. (See the
statements under executive, administrative, and managerial
occupations; under sales occupations; and on computer
scientists, computer engineers, and systems analysts
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
* Job Outlook
Employment opportunities in engineering are expected to be
good through the year 2006 because employment is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all occupations
while the number of degrees granted in engineering may not
increase as rapidly as employment.
Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force
companies to improve and update product designs more
frequently, and to work to optimize their manufacturing
processes. Employers will rely on engineers to further
increase productivity as they increase investment in plant
and equipment to expand output of goods and services. New
computer systems have improved the design process, enabling
engineers to produce and analyze design variations much more
rapidly; these systems are increasingly used to monitor and
control processes. Despite this widespread application,
computer technology is not expected to limit employment
opportunities. Finally, more engineers will be needed to
improve or build new roads, bridges, water and pollution
control systems, and other public facilities.
Many of the jobs in engineering are related to developing
technologies used in national defense. Because defense
expenditures, particularly expenditures for the purchase of
aircraft, missiles, and other weapons systems, are expected
to continue at low levels (compared with the cold war
years), employment growth and job outlook for engineers
working for defense contractors may not be strong through
2006.
The number of bachelor's degrees awarded in engineering
began declining in 1987, as shown in chart 2, and has stayed
at about the same level in the 1990's. Although it is
difficult to project engineering enrollments, the total
number of students enrolled in colleges is expected to
increase over the projection period, and it is likely that
engineering enrollments and number of degrees awarded will
follow. However, some engineering schools have restricted
enrollments, especially in defense-related fields such as
aerospace engineering, to accommodate the reduced
opportunities in defense-related industries.
Only a relatively small proportion of engineers leave the
profession each year. Despite this, most job openings will
arise from replacement needs. A greater proportion of
replacement openings is created by engineers who transfer to
management, sales, or other professional specialty
occupations than by those who leave the labor force.
Most industries are less likely to lay off engineers than
other workers. Many engineers work on long-term research and
development projects or in other activities which may
continue even during recessions. In industries such as
electronics and aerospace, however, large cutbacks in
defense procurement expenditures, government research and
development funds, and the increasing trend of contracting
out engineering work to engineering services firms have
resulted in significant layoffs for engineers.
It is important for engineers, like those working in other
technical occupations, to continue their education
throughout their careers because much of their value to
their employer depends on their knowledge of the latest
technology. Although the pace of technological change varies
by engineering specialty and industry, advances in
technology have affected every engineering discipline
significantly. Engineers in high-technology areas, such as
advanced electronics, may find that technical knowledge can
become obsolete rapidly. Even those who continue their
education are vulnerable if the particular technology or
product in which they have specialized becomes obsolete. By
keeping current in their field, engineers are able to
deliver the best solutions and greatest value to their
employers. Engineers who have not kept current in their
field may find themselves passed over for promotions or
vulnerable to layoffs, should they occur. On the other hand,
it is often these high-technology areas that offer the
greatest challenges, the most interesting work, and the
highest salaries. Therefore, the choice of engineering
specialty and employer involves an assessment not only of
the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological
obsolescence.
* Earnings
Starting salaries for engineers with the bachelor's degree
are significantly higher than starting salaries of
bachelor's degree graduates in other fields. According to
the National Association of Colleges and Employers,
engineering graduates with a bachelor's degree averaged
about $38,500 a year in private industry in 1997; those with
a master's degree and no experience, $45,400 a year; and
those with a Ph.D., $59,200. Starting salaries for those
with the bachelor's degree vary by branch, as shown in the
following tabulation.
Aerospace $37,957
Chemical 42,817
Civil 33,119
Electrical 39,513
Industrial 38,026
Mechanical 38,113
Metallurgical 38,550
Mining 36,724
Nuclear 37,194
Petroleum 43,674
A survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas reported
that beginning engineers had median annual earnings of about
$34,400 in 1995, with the middle half earning between about
$30,900 and $38,116 a year. Experienced midlevel engineers
with no supervisory responsibilities had median annual
earnings of about $59,100, with the middle half earning
between about $54,000 and $65,000 a year. Median annual
earnings for engineers at senior managerial levels were
about $99,200. Median annual earnings for these and other
levels of engineers are shown in the following tabulation.
Engineer
I $34,400
Engineer
II 41,000
Engineer
III 48,500
Engineer
IV 59,100
Engineer
V 71,400
Engineer
VI 84,200
Engineer
VII 99,200
Engineer
VIII 117,000
The median annual salary for all engineers who worked full
time was about $49,200 in 1996. Those with a bachelor's
degree had median annual earnings of $49,800; master's
degree, $56,700; and PhD, $64,700. Median annual salaries
for some engineering specialties were:
Aerospace $57,000
Chemical 52,600
Civil 46,000
Electrical 51,700
Industrial 43,700
Mechanical 49,700
Engineers,
nec 49,700
The average annual salary for engineers in the Federal
Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial
positions was $61,950 in 1997.
* Related Occupations
Engineers apply the principles of physical science and
mathematics in their work. Other workers who use scientific
and mathematical principles include engineering, science,
and computer systems managers; physical, life, and computer
scientists; mathematicians; engineering and science
technicians; and architects.
* Sources of Additional Information
High school students interested in obtaining general
information on a variety of engineering disciplines should
contact the Junior Engineering Technical Society by sending
a self-addressed business-size envelope with 6 first-class
stamps affixed, to:
JETS-Guidance, at 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA
22314-2794. Homepage: http://www.asee.org/jets
High school students interested in obtaining information on
ABET accredited engineering programs should contact:
The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology,
Inc., at 111 Market Place, Suite 1050, Baltimore, MD
21202-4012.
Homepage: http://www.abet.ba.md.us
Non-high school students and those wanting more detailed
information should contact societies representing the
individual branches of engineering. Each can provide
information about careers in the particular branch.
Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering, send $3 to:
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.,
Suite 500, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4344.
Chemical Engineering
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St.,
New York, NY 10017-2395.
American Chemical Society, Department of Career Services,
1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036.
Civil Engineering
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1801 Alexander Bell
Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400.
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1828 L
St. NW., Suite 1202, Washington, DC 20036.
Industrial Engineering
Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology
Park/Atlanta, Norcross, GA 30092. Homepage:
http://www.iienet.org
Mechanical Engineering
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 E. 47th
St., New York, NY 10017.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle NE.,
Atlanta, GA 30329. Homepage://www.ashrae.org
Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineering
The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society, 420 Commonwealth
Dr., Warrendale, PA 15086-7514. Homepage: http://www.tms.org
ASM International, Student Outreach Program, Materials Park,
OH 44073-0002.
Mining Engineering
The Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.,
P.O. Box 625002, Littleton, CO 80162-5002.
Nuclear Engineering
American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave.,
LaGrange Park, IL 60525.
Petroleum Engineering
Society of Petroleum Engineers, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson,
TX 75083-3836.
--
※ 来源:·BBS 水木清华站 bbs.net.tsinghua.edu.cn·[FROM: 166.111.66.44]
BBS水木清华站∶精华区