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发信人: myosotis (阿金), 信区: AdvancedEdu
标 题: 98-99 ocupational outlook/Engineering, Science, a
发信站: BBS 水木清华站 (Mon Apr 6 22:22:24 1998)
Significant Points
* The majority of growth in these managerial occupations is
caused by the rapid expansion of employment in computer-related
occupations.
* These managers need the specialized technical skills possessed
by their staff to perform effectively.
* Nature of the Work
Engineering, science, and computer systems managers plan,
coordinate, and direct research, development, design,
production, and computer-related activities. They supervise
a staff which may include engineers, scientists,
technicians, computer specialists, and information
technology workers, along with support personnel.
Engineering, science, and computer systems managers
determine scientific and technical goals within broad
outlines provided by top management. These goals may include
the redesigning of an aircraft, improvements in
manufacturing processes, the development of a large computer
program, or advances in scientific research. Managers make
detailed plans for the accomplishment of these goalsfor
example, working with their staff, they may develop the
overall concepts of new products or identify problems
standing in the way of project completion. They determine
the cost of and equipment and personnel needed for projects
and programs. They hire and assign scientists, engineers,
technicians, computer specialists, information technology
workers, and support personnel to carry out specific parts
of the projects. The managers supervise these employees'
work, and review their designs, programs, and reports. They
present ideas and projects to top management for approval or
when seeking additional funds for development.
Managers coordinate the activities of their unit with other
units or organizations. They confer with higher levels of
management; with financial, industrial production,
marketing, and other managers; and with contractors and
equipment and materials suppliers. They also establish
working and administrative procedures and policies.
Engineering managers supervise people who design and develop
machinery, products, systems, and processes; or direct and
coordinate production, operations, quality assurance,
testing, or maintenance in industrial plants. Many are plant
engineers, who direct and coordinate the design,
installation, operation, and maintenance of equipment and
machinery in industrial plants. Others manage research and
development teams that produce new products and processes or
improve existing ones.
Science managers oversee activities in agricultural science,
chemistry, biology, geology, meteorology, or physics. They
manage research and development projects and direct and
coordinate experimentation, testing, quality control, and
production in research institutes and industrial plants.
Science managers are often involved in their own research in
addition to managing the work of others.
Computer systems managers direct and plan programming,
computer operations, and data processing, and coordinate the
development of computer hardware, systems design, and
software. Top-level managers direct all computer-related
activities in an organization. They analyze the computer and
data information requirements of their organization and
assign, schedule, and review the work of systems analysts,
computer programmers, and computer operators. They determine
personnel and computer hardware requirements, evaluate
equipment options, and make purchasing decisions.
Some engineering, science, and computer systems managers
head a section of scientists, engineers, or computer
professionals and support staff. Above them are heads of
divisions composed of a number of sections. A few are
directors of research or of large laboratories.
* Working Conditions
Engineering, science, and computer systems managers spend
most of their time in an office. Some managers, however, may
also work in laboratories or industrial plants, where they
are normally exposed to the same conditions as research
scientists and may occasionally be exposed to the same
conditions as production workers. Most managers work at
least 40 hours a week and may work much longer on occasion
if meeting project deadlines. Some may experience
considerable pressure in meeting technical or scientific
goals within a short time or a tight budget.
* Employment
Engineering, science, and computer systems managers held
about 343,000 jobs in 1996. Although these managers are
found in almost all industries, about 38 percent are
employed in manufacturing, especially in the industrial
machinery and equipment, electrical and electronic
equipment, instruments, chemicals, and transportation
equipment industries. However, the two industries employing
the greatest number of these managers were engineering and
architectural services and computer and data processing
services; each employed about 1 in 10 in 1996. The majority
are most likely engineering managers, often managing
industrial research, development, and design projects.
Others work for government agencies, research and testing
services, communications and utilities companies, financial
and insurance firms, and management and public relations
services companies.
* Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
It is essential that engineering, science, and computer
systems managers have a base of technical knowledge that
allows them to understand and guide the work of their
subordinates and to explain the work in non-technical terms
to senior management and potential customers. Therefore,
experience as an engineer, mathematician, scientist, or
computer professional is usually required to become an
engineering, science, or computer systems manager.
Educational requirements are consequently similar to those
for scientists, engineers, and computer professionals.
Engineering managers first start as engineers. A bachelor's
degree in engineering from an accredited engineering program
is acceptable for beginning engineering jobs, but many
engineers increase their chances for promotion to a
managerial position by obtaining a master's degree in
engineering, engineering management, or business
administration. A degree in business administration or
engineering management is especially useful for becoming a
general manager, because these degree programs teach
engineers about managing personnel and technical and
financial resources.
Science managers usually start as a chemist, physicist,
biologist, or other natural scientist. Most scientists
engaged in basic research have a Ph.D. degree. Some in
applied research and other activities may have lesser
degrees. First-level science managers are usually
specialists in the work they supervise. For example, the
manager of a group of physicists doing optical research is
almost always a physicist who is an expert in optics. Many
scientific research firms are started and managed by
scientists who obtain funding to build a staff and purchase
technology to pursue their research agenda, with the goal of
eventually developing a commercially successful product.
Most computer systems managers have been systems analysts,
although some may have experience as computer engineers,
programmers, operators, or other computer specialties. There
is no universally accepted way of preparing for a job as a
systems analyst. Many have degrees in computer or
information science, computer information systems, or data
processing and have experience as computer programmers. A
bachelor's degree is usually required and a graduate degree
is often preferred by employers. However, a few computer
systems managers have associate degrees. A typical career
advancement progression in a large organization would be
from programmer to programmer/analyst, to systems analyst,
and then to project leader or senior analyst. The first real
managerial position might be as project manager, programming
supervisor, systems supervisor, or software manager.
In addition to educational requirements, scientists,
engineers, or computer specialists must demonstrate
above-average technical skills to be considered for a
promotion to manager. Superiors also look for leadership and
communication skills, as well as managerial attributes such
as the ability to make rational decisions, to manage time
well, organize and coordinate work effectively, establish
good working and personal relationships, and motivate
others. Also, a successful manager must have the desire to
perform management functions. Many scientists, engineers,
and computer specialists want to be promoted but actually
prefer doing technical work.
Some scientists and engineers become managers in marketing,
personnel, purchasing, or other areas, or become general
managers.
* Job Outlook
Employment of engineering, science, and computer systems
managers is expected to increase much faster than the
average for all occupations through the year 2006.
Underlying much of the growth of managers in science and
engineering are competitive pressures and advancing
technologies which force companies to update and improve
products more frequently. Research and investment in plants
and equipment to expand output of goods and services and to
raise productivity will also add to employment requirements
for science and engineering managers involved in research
and development, design, and the operation and maintenance
of production facilities.
Employment of computer systems managers will increase
rapidly due to the fast-paced expansion of the computer and
data processing services industry and the increased
employment of computer systems analysts. Large computer
centers are consolidating or closing as small computers
become more powerful, resulting in fewer opportunities for
computer systems managers at these centers. As the economy
expands and as advances in technology lead to broader
applications for computers, however, opportunities will
increase and employment should grow rapidly.
Opportunities for those who wish to become engineering,
science, and computer systems managers should be closely
related to the growth of the occupations they supervise and
the industries in which they are found. (See the statements
on natural scientists, engineers, computer programmers, and
computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems
analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because many engineers,
natural scientists, and computer specialists are eligible
for management and seek promotion, there may be substantial
competition for these openings.
Many of the industries which employ engineers and scientists
derive a large portion of their business from defense
contracts. Because defense expenditures are being reduced,
employment has declined and the job outlook for managers is
not as favorable in these industries, compared to less
defense-oriented industries.
* Earnings
Earnings for engineering, science, and computer systems
managers vary by specialty and level of management.
According to 1996 data, science and engineering managers had
average salaries that ranged from $41,000 to well over
$100,000 for the most senior managers in large
organizations. According to Robert Half International,
computer systems managers earned salaries ranging from
$33,000 to well over $100,000, depending on establishment
size. Managers often earn about 15 to 25 percent more than
those they directly supervise, although there are cases in
which some employees are paid more than the manager who
supervises them. This is especially true in research fields.
According to a survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan
areas, lower-level engineering managers had median annual
earnings of $84,200 in 1995, with the middle half earning
between $76,300 and $92,800. The highest-level engineering
managers had median annual earnings of $117,000, with the
middle half earning between $104,000 and $133,000. Beginning
systems analysts managers had median annual earnings of
$60,900, with the middle half earning between $55,100 and
$67,000. The most senior systems analysts managers had
median annual earnings of $84,200, with the middle half
earning between $76,200 and $92,000.
In addition, engineering, science, and computer systems
managers, especially those at higher levels, often are
provided with more benefits (such as expense accounts, stock
option plans, and bonuses) than non-managerial workers in
their organizations.
* Related Occupations
The work of engineering, science, and computer systems
managers is closely related to that of engineers, natural
scientists, computer personnel, and mathematicians. It is
also related to the work of other managers, especially
general managers and top executives.
* Sources of Additional Information
For information about a career as an engineering, science,
or computer systems manager, contact the sources of
additional information for engineers, natural scientists,
and computer occupations that are listed in statements on
these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Image] Occupational Outlook Handbook Home Page
[Image] BLS Home Page
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Douglas Braddock
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Braddock_D@bls.gov
Last modified: January 15, 1998
URL: http://stats/bls.gov/oco/ocos009.htm
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